Rhetorical Analysis: the Crisis, No. 1

Rhetorical Analysis: The Crisis, No. 1 by Thomas Paine Political writer, Thomas Paine, in his persuasive writing, The Crisis No. 1, expresses feelings towards Britain's control over the colonies. Paine's purpose is to unite the colonists in an effort to retaliate against Great Britain. He uses an objective tone in order to unite and rally the common person in his nation. Paine opens his persuasion to the nation by warning that getting their freedom from Britain will not be easy. By using the simile, â€Å"Tyranny, like hell†¦ , he implies that Britain's control over them will not be easy to overcome. As he says in the beginning of the paragraph, â€Å"The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will†¦ shrink from the service†¦ but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and women. â€Å", this states that anyone who will not fight for their country does not deserve their country, he uses pathos when declaring this statement. In the latter section of this paragraph, Paine uses the metaphor, â€Å"†¦ f being bound in that manner is not slavery†, to show that the way that the Britain is controlling them, makes them feel like slaves. Paine later uses ethos when he states, â€Å"However, the fault, if it were one, was all our own; we have none to blame but ourselves. But no great deal is lost yet. † He says this to show the nation that they had messed up in the beginning, but if they were to come together they could right the wrongs that were done. In the following paragraph Paine uses pathos when he talks about God not giving up on his people.That God will provide for them and not give them â€Å"up to the care of devils†. he also states that God will be on their side, â€Å"I cannot see on what grounds the King of Britain can look up to heaven for help against us: a common murderer†. Paine shifts to talk about panic, how panic can be used to produce good and bad. He uses a simile in paragraph th ree, â€Å"Britain has trembled like and ague†, he uses this to show that even the royal British army can be terrified, later in the paragraph he states, â€Å"the whole English army†¦ was driven back like men petrified with fear†, to emphasize his point more.Paine opens the closing paragraph by uniting the people with ethos, â€Å"The far and near, the home counties and the back, the rich and the poor will suffer or rejoice alike. † In saying that Paine implies, no matter what happens they all will stay together, whether it be death or freedom. He also uses ethos by stating â€Å"Not all the treasures in the world†¦ could have induced me to support and offensive war, I think it murder. â€Å", by saying this Paine shows that war was the last option he would have much rather came to a peaceful solution, but given the circumstances, there was no choice.Paine closes up the paragraph by using an asyndeton, â€Å"Let them call me a rebel and welcomeâ₠¬ ¦ but I should suffer the misery of devils were I to make a whore of my soul by swearing allegiance to one whose character is that of a sottish, stupid, stubborn, worthless, brutish man. † His use of the asyndeton to show that the King is much more than that he listed. In The Crisis No. 1, Thomas Paine creates an objective tone to unite and rally the nation by showing what kind of man the King of Britain is. Paine achieved his goal by using a variety of rhetorical devices. He connected to the nation through the use of his devices.

Macario’s Noche Buena

Nobody knew anything about Macario's early life; but everybody knew that he was a robber, the chief of a gang which used to haunt the country about the shores of Laguna De Bay and rob merchants coming from Manila. It was in the days when no railroad line existed in the Philippines, when all trips by water had to be made by bancas, cascos, and small, slow steamboats, and all overland journeys had to be made in carromatas, carts, or on horseback. Macario was known to be the fiercest among the highwaymen. He had foiled all attempts of the guardias civils to capture him. A price was set on his head.It was nine o'clock on a Christmas eve. The past week macario and his gang had had plenty to do, for it was the week when many merchants went to manila and back to their towns. Macario was alone. He stationed himself in a grove of bamboo trees a little distance from the solitary road some miles from the town of Calamba. The night was dark and a cool wind was blowing across the lonely fields, m aking the bamboo tops bend and wave. What was there strange NT the sound of the wind as it sighed among the bamboo leaves? nothing! Only that it had a remorseful sound, as of an upbraiding conscience daring to assert itself.That sound was most disquieting to the nerves it made Macario restless. He wished someone would come up the road, someone that would make him turn that restless into action. He even wished that some guardias civils would come, he wished to drown the voice of that wind in the excitement of a fight. While he was walking back and forth among the bamboo trees, he heard the sound of hoof beats in the distance. â€Å"Ah† said he, â€Å"I shall have my wish at last†. He went nearer the road and stood beside a tree. When the hoof beats sounded nearer, he discerned a dark object, hardly perceptible in the obscurity around.â€Å"Halt† cried Macario as he rushed toward that moving figure. â€Å"Halt or you are dead man! † the hoof beats ceased si multaneously with his cry Macario found himself face to face with a man riding on a horse. The man was alone. There was nothing martial about him, he was a merchant and he had two baskets on each side of his horse. The bandit took the horse by the bridle without a word and led it across the fields to the door of a nipa shack. â€Å"I want money,† Macario said as soon as they were inside the shack and he had brought in the baskets.The man gave him five pesos saying that he had no more. The robber then proceeded to open the baskets and examine their contents, which were mostly groceries. The merchant had gone to Manila expressily to buy these, not for sale, because he dealt only in cloth, but to regale his friends, his many nephews, nieces, cousins and his own children the next day, Christmas. The robber felt to the very bottom of a basket and drew out a large box. He opened it. It contained toys of all sorts-two or three dolls of different sizes, small green carriages drawn by red horses and a little drum.He took the drum and seemed to forget everything else as he held it. He regarded it with wistfulness, turned it round and round, tried beating it; it absorbed his whole interest. What was there peculiar about a drum or about THE DRUM MACARIO WAS HOLDING? Ah! There are strong associations that can be awakened by small objects. The memory of our meeting with lost friend may be brought home to us by the sight of a simple flower; an alphabet book may recall to mind the long, tedious hours with a cruel school master,and the past may be revived by a trifling toy.Macario saw in the drum not a toy but an object associated with his early life. His mind traveled back, back to a small barrio in a distant province, to a particular time, to a certain Christmas day. He saw a little boy going to his godfather's. He was wearing chinelas for the first time; they were red chinelas. He had a jusi shirt on, and a small buri hat. The little boy kissed his godfather's hand. The godfather took a little drum from a package and gave it to the boy, together with a half-peso piece. The little boy was himself.He was hum playing boy, together with little boys dressed in the same way; he heard him beating his drum and telling his playmates about the big star which he had seen in church that morning, the star which started from the choir and moved up to the altar; and of the little baby lying down on some grass, and of the little sheep and goats there; yes, as the altar he saw little goats. Other Christmas pictures came up before his mind in quick succession-picture in which he saw himself, each time older and grown larger. Then came one scene, the scene he had always dreaded, the scene which he would not haveRecalled for all the treasures he had stolen during his robber life and for what he might yet steal. It was Christmas eve again. He was now a tall young man. He was lurking among some trees near a path in a country district. He was mad, his blood was boili ng; his long sharp bolo was thirsting for blood as his heart thirsted for vengeance. The wind was blowing among the leaves of the trees; it incited him to more furious thoughts. Then his strained ears heard a sound, a snatch from an old country song. Ah! It was his enemy, singing; he who made this Christmas eve miserable for him.Macario asked nothing, explained nothing, he simply dashed forward to his enemy and made the long bolo work out his revenge. He saw his enemy fall, saw the body steeped in its own blood. He ran, ran†¦. The dreaded tulisan, stopping with his head in his hands, stood up and ran, ran out of the shack into the fields, into the road, into the arms of two guardias civiles! In the same town some little children were unhappy although they received a peso from their father. The little boy did wish so much to get a drum and the little girls wanted dolls very badly.First of all, a short story usually only has one main character. There may be more than one characte r in the story, but there is only one central person who undergoes a change or realization by the end of the story. In the story â€Å"Macario’s Noche-Buena†, there are a couple of characters, comprised by the robber Macario, the rider on horseback whom Macario robbed, and two guardia civilles who appeared at the end of the story. We can say that Macario was main character because the whole story revolved around him and his past experiences.He also experienced a change/realization because in the story, because he reminisces about his life as a child and how happy he was then. It was also mentioned that, â€Å"The little boy did wish so much to get a drum†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Maybe the little boy could be compared to Macario, who realized what he had become. Maybe all he wanted for Christmas was to go back to his life as a child where he didn’t have to steal and where life was so simple and fun. Next, a short story has only one main plot, unlike a lot of novels whose p lots divide into subplots and divide even further into more subplots.Basically, the plot of â€Å"Macario’s Noche-Buena† is the current life of Macario as a thief, and his memories of his youth. The story starts on December 24th, Noche-Buena. Macario is hiding in a grove of bamboo trees waiting for someone to pass. After some time, a man on horseback arrived, whom Macario ordered to give him his money. He only had five pesos so Macario opened the bag that the man was carrying. In the bag, Macario found some groceries, but more importantly there also was also an assortment of toys. Some dolls, carriages, and a little drum.Macario got hold of the drum and then remembered the little drum that his grandfather had given him for Christmas many years back. After that, more memories rushed in, one when he was a young adult, where he was holding a bloodied bolo and a dead man in front of him. After this, it is stated in the story that he ran, and after some distance he was caug ht by two guardia civilles, and then the story ends. Third, a short story has only one main setting. In this case, most of the story happens on a road with a patch of bamboo trees beside it.There is no longer a change of location like many longer narratives. This story focuses mainly on Macario’s actions and memories, the setting is not really important in â€Å"Macario’s Noche-Buena† Lastly, the theme of most short stories contains a moral lesson to be learned. In â€Å"Macario’s Noche-Buena†, Macario is a robber who on Christmas Eve finally realizes how much he has changed. From a happy young boy, he has turned into a man who steals toys meant to be given to children for Christmas. In this moment he remembers being given toys for Christmas by his Grandfather.The moral of the story is that even if you are driven into a corner and forced to do something evil, you should remember that there are also other human beings like you who will be affected b y the decisions you make. His miserable memories made him steal and kill and thereby the author is concluding the story in a meaningful way to show the very cause of his wrong deeds—â€Å"In the same town some little children were unhappy although they each received a peso from their father. The little boy did wish so much to get a drum and the little girls wanted dolls very badly. †

African Poetry

It is a historical irony that the same language serves the African writer in voicing his thoughts and feelings to the world at large. While discussing the future of English, Simeon Porter observes, It will adopt to meet new needs and in that incessant reshaping and adaptation, every speaker and writer consciously or unconsciously will play some part. (181) Today, the prediction of Porter came true of African writing in English. It brought strength and appeal to the English language by adding a large range of new vocabulary and usage. Writing on the problems faced by the African English writers,  Chinua Achebe  the famous Nigerian writer says, The African writer should aim to use English that brings out his message without altering the language to the extent that its value as a medium of international exchange will be lost. He should aim at fashioning out an English, which is at once unusual and able to carry his peculiar experience. (61) It is applaudable that the writers of Africa succeeded in accomplishing the above task set by Achebe, which is by any means not an easy one. Their successful integration of native experience and expression in an alien tongue received worldwide acclaim. Their success proved, as critics like Srinivasa Iyengar pointed out, A shot in the arm of modern English Literature has had to come from West Africans like Amos Tutuola,  Wole Soyinka  and Gabriel Okara. (16) The role of poetry, in African literature, has been highly effective in providing the people with the needful inspiration and the necessary insight. The language of poetry, for the African people, is a source of learning and becoming aware of their destiny that necessitates the knowledge of their past, present and the possible future. These and several other ideas fuelled African poetry in English. For the African poets, poetry became a powerful medium through which they conveyed to the world audience, not only their despairs and hopes, the enthusiasm and empathy, the thrill of joy and the stab of pain but lso a nations history as it moved from freedom to slavery, from slavery to revolution, from revolution to independence and from independence to tasks of reconstruction which further involve situations of failure and disillusion. (Iyengar, 15) When we read African Literature, we should, by obligation remember that, colonization was at its harshest in Africa. As history stands proof, it was highly exploited and savaged by the ambitious white man. This experience is on the minds of all thinking poets. Despite getting uhuru or in dependence, the bitterness returns again and again. The unforgettable colonial past comes angrily alive in a poem by Kenyas poet Joseph Kareyaku thus, It is not as you suppose, your lands, your cars, your money, or your cities I covet It is what gores me most, that in my own house and in my very own home you should eye me and all thats mine with that practiced, long-drawn, insulting sneer. (quoted in Iyengar, 30) In a poem entitled If you want to know me Noemia De Sousa writes ruefully of Africa, by effectively using the literary device of personification thus: This is what I am mpty sockets despairing of possessing of life a mouth torn open in an anguished wound a body tattooed with wounds seen and unseen from the harsh whipstrokes of slavery tortured and magnificent proud and mysterious Africa from head to foot This is what I am. (Narasimhaiah, 137) The much-brutalized Dark Continent is tellingly depicted in the following lines of a poem named The Shapes of Fear by Richard Ntiru. Like an arrested breath when breathing makes silence imperfect and the ear cannot differentiate between the conspiratorial whispers and the winds singing. .. a twig in the courtyard snaps and report of a gun is understood. (Narasimhaiah, 137) Nigerian poet , the Nobel laureate Wole Soyinkas masterful irony skillfully conceals anger at the racist attitude in his famous poem, Telephone Converstion. After negotiating for a house on rent on telephone, he tells the landlady of his being a black African. He was rudely shocked when he was caught foully by the ladys query regarding his darkness thus: HOW DARK? I had not misheard Are you light OR VERY DARK (Narasimhaiah, 149) The ill- mannered silence between the two is filled with images such as stench of rancid breath of public- hide-and-speak, Red booth, Red- Pillar-box, Red double-tiered Omnibus squelching tar that subsume the age-old and still hopeless and violent colour- conflict. The theme of English superiority glares through David Rubadiris poem A Negro Labourer in Liverpool: Here his hope is the shovel And his fulfillment resignation. (Narasimhaiah, 134) One of the most important phases in African poetry is  Negritude, a powerful literary movement founded by Aime Cesaire of Senegal. Among other things, the Negritude poets favoured the theme of glorification of Africa. They worshipped anything African in scintillating rhymes. Anger at injustice meted out to the colonized Africa is also one of the oft-repeated themes of their poetry. Heres an example from David Diops poem Africa. Africa, my Africa Africa of proud warriors in ancestral savannahs. Is this you, this back that is bent This back that breaks under the weight of humiliation This back trembling with red scars And saying yes to the whip under the midday sun.. That is Africa your Africa That grows again patiently obstinately And its fruit gradually acquires The bitter taste of liberty. (Narasimhaiah, 153) Dennis Brutus, a South African poet, was subjected to torture by a cruel regime. His writing is full of images of love contrasted with images of death thus, Desolate Your face gleams up Beneath me in the dusk Abandoned A wounded dove Helpless Beneath the knife of love. (Quoted in Theroux, 2) Great feeling for Africa is felt in Abioseh Nicols poem The Meaning of Africa thus: Africa, you were once just a name to me So I came back ailing down the Guinea coast . You are not a country Africa, You are a concept I know now that is what you are Africa Happiness, contentment and fulfillment. (Quoted in Povey, 39) A poets affirmation of his love for Africa shines radiantly through the following verses. Dark Africa! My dawn is here; Behold! I see A rich warm glow in the East, And my day will soon be here. (Iyengar, 30) Deification of Africa is a fit topic for many African p oets. Perhaps this is their reaction to the self glorification and the civilizing zeal of the imperial powers of Europe. Bernard Dadies poem attains special significance viewed in that light. He says in a poem entitled I Thank God, I thank you God for creating me black. White is the colour for special occasions Black the colour for every day And I have carried the World since the dawn of time And my laugh over the World, through the night creates The Day. (Narasimhaiah, 122) In Africa, the advent of the white mans civilizing mission displaced scores of native societies from their own cultural roots. The impact of the spread of Christianity combined with material benefits such as classroom education and well-paid jobs forced many Africans abandon their own faith and adapt the religion of the pale-faced aliens. This situation is responsible for the natives to suffer from culture shock. Nevertheless, the native is expected to owe allegiance to his own tribal culture and embrace Christianity for material benefits. This cultural confusion is well articulated by Mabel Segun in a poem thus: Here we stand Infants overblown Poised between two civilizations Finding the balance irksome. (Quoted in Povey, 39) Gabriel Okara expresses the same sentiments in a lyric thus: When at break of day at a riverside I hear jungle drums Then I hear a wailing piano Solo speaking of complex ways. (Quoted in Gleason, 143) However, there are poets like Kofi Awoonor Williams of Ghana whose passion for past is expressed in his rediscovery themes with the help of extended rhythms as in the following lines. Sew the old days for us our fathers that we wear them under our old garments after we have washed ourselves.. ( The Anvil and the Hammer) gain, Sew the old days for me my father Sew them so that I may wear them For the feast that is coming. (Quoted in Theroux, 4) He accomplishes the same excellence of evolving extended rhythms in poems like The Long Journey and My Song. Poetic excellence and rare innovative creative ability are seen in  Christopher Okigbo  poems such as The Stars Have Departed. He says, The stars have departed The sky in a monocle Surveys the world under The stars have departed And I- Where am I? ? Stretch, stretch O antennae, To clutch at this hour, Fulfilling each movement in a Broken monody. (quoted in Walsh, 48) Images that can evoke a situation beyond hope which are reminiscent of Eliots war poetry are visible in the following verses from K. Brews poem The Search. The past is but the cinders Of the present The future The smoke That escaped Into the cloud- bound sky. (quoted in Walsh, 50) Some of the poets have realized the futility of fighting over issues such as race, respect and national identity. What more can be more illuminating than the enlightened poets words such as, You must leave the sifting sands of self- seeking and deceit nd erect far mightier mansions on the rock of healthy soil. (Iyengar, 36) Lenrie Peters poems are short on the print but deep on ones mind like the one cited below Open the gates To East and West Bring in all Thats good and best. The memorable lines of Peters poem On a wet September Morning with their sheer beauty of imagery and the underlying thought of universal brotherhood celebrate the oneness of the human family. To c ite a few verses, The echo burst in me Like a great harmonic chord- Violins of love and happy voices The pagan trumpet blast Swamping the lamentation of the horn Then the heraldic drums In slow crescendo rising Crashed though my senses Into a new present Which is the future. After this brief glance at African poetry, we realize that it is not simply an offshoot of British literary tradition. Despite the many disadvantages such as a scarred past, colonial trauma, expression in a foreign medium, inability to travel abroad, unstable economic and political state of affairs in their respective nations, lack of educational opportunities, the African poet has effortless creative capacity. It is an enriching combination of rich oral literature, native experience and imported tradition of writing in English that made African poetry a tremendous success both at home and abroad. The Black Orpheus (African Poets) is no longer an unknown or an unwanted quantity but a fascinating and often enviable and beneficent literary marvel from what was ignorantly termed as the dark continent.

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Why Marijuana Should Not Be Legalized Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Why Marijuana Should Not Be Legalized - Essay Example The arguments of Nathan were actually appropriately substantiated and credible due to his medical background. Therefore, his expertise on the profound effects of marijuana is validated. In fact, he confirmed that â€Å"I am also a physician who understands that the negative legal consequences of marijuana use are far worse than the medical consequences† (Nathan par. 2). But despite the obvious negative effects, it was deemed more advantageous to promote for its legalization given the following reasons: (1) at the current status of marijuana still being considered prohibited by law; there apparently continues continued trade and sale which apparently contributes to vagrant criminal activities through illicit drug use and trade; (2) the continued popularity of marijuana leads to â€Å"the potential for adulteration of black-market cannabis and the substitution of even more dangerous copycat compounds† (Nathan par. 9); (3) as emphasized, â€Å"natural marijuana poses much less danger than synthetic cannabinoids -- legal or otherwise† (Nathan par. 9). His arguments are therefore worth reflecting.

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Independent Music Labels and Their impact on theMusic Industry - Essay Example In recent times – fortunately or unfortunately we don’t know whether to call it a boon or a bane, there has been a sudden splurge of new private music companies which have given the existing scenario a total make-over by branding themselves on a different plane altogether. Besides the four major recording companies –i.e. Warner, Universal, Sony BMG and EMI, there are what are called â€Å"Indie† labels. The most common or widely used description of â€Å"independent† labels is that they are not connected with any major or corporate label. Such labels give more freedom and control, than what is allowed by major labels. They also extend support on the business aspect of music, though not on a very large scale. Independent labels face a downside in the fact that they lack the finance needed to make an artist or album popular. They are not capable of good advertisements or promotions for artists or albums. Most of these small labels are run by musicians from their home or garage. If it becomes a success, eventually it is taken over by a major label. The current scenario is pretty clear, both consumers and artists have spectacular opportunities from digital download technologies, as long as the artists are fairly compensated and major labels don’t interfere with it. Obviously, technology is changing the face of the Music industry.

See Order Instructions below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

See Order Instructions below - Essay Example Discuss the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (ANMC) National Competency Standards for the Registered Nurse and the ANMC Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct (see www.anmc.org.au to access documents) as they shape the registered nurse role and as they contribute to your understanding of your preparation as a registered nurse. Use the ANMC National Competency Standards for the Registered Nurse as well as the ANMC Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct as an underpinning to describe and evaluate your preparation for registered nursing clinical practice. This requires that you crystallise, reflect upon and document aspects of your professional development. You will do this through your reflections on both successful and less successful instances from your own learning and clinical practice. Your reflection should be informed by the available literature and integrate any and evidence of your claims from assessments and specific relevant, learning experiences or incidents.

Great Ideologies Stemming Out From Chaos Essay Example for Free

Great Ideologies Stemming Out From Chaos Essay Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Paine, three great political philosophers, all view the nature of man and society as anarchical, which is a state of lawlessness or political disorder due to the absence of governmental authority, making it â€Å"war of all against all†. The utopian society of individuals enjoys complete freedom without government, wherein there is a display of a lack of morality for most of the time. In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes presented the political state as a Leviathan—a sea monster. As a metaphor for the state, it is described as a replica of a person whose body is made up of all the bodies of its citizens, who are the literal members of the Leviathans body, and placing the sovereign as the head. In order for them to escape this natural condition, the people in the state constructed the Leviathan through social contract wherein they give up certain natural rights and transfer them to another person of authority. In turn, the power of the Leviathan protects them from the abuses of one another. The source of inequality comes from the scarcity of resources. If one looks around at other animals—Hobbes specifically notes ants and bees—they appear to live harmoniously with one another without any sort of state or society. If they can do so, then why cant men who are, after all, â€Å"animals† themselves? Hobbes discussed several reasons as to why men cannot live this way: the main one being that men are rational creatures. If we lived in some pre-societal concord with others, reason would always devise ways for us to cheat and make ourselves better off than others in order for us to survive. Furthermore, as we humans possess speech, we are able to mislead one another about our wants and desires. Hobbes also claims that animals naturally agree with one another while humans do not, and the reason for this essentially is because man is competitive in nature and therefore views everyone around him as a threat. Therefore, the government is created to provide order and regulation. For Hobbes, the best form of government is monarchy for four reasons: first, since humans will always choose the private over the public good, the best way to ensure peace when choosing a sovereign is to have these united. And by the outweighing of private good over public ones, infighting and corruption within government is encouraged. Second, having a secret counsel is allowed in a monarchy as opposed to in a democracy or aristocracy. Third, a monarchy is more consistent: since the monarch is one person and humans are not perfectly consistent, the commonwealth changes only as human nature dictates. In a democracy and aristocracy, because more natural bodies compose the sovereign, the commonwealth is more subject to human inconsistency as well as the inconsistency that comes from a change in the makeup of the sovereign, which happens with each election cycle or new member of the aristocracy. Lastly, infighting or warring factions caused by envy, self-interest, or any other human imperfections cannot be seen in a monarchy. On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau views the government as an abomination because it interferes with the nature of man. His aim is to examine the foundations of inequality among men, and to determine whether this inequality is authorized by natural law. He attempts to demonstrate that modern moral inequality, which is created by an agreement between men, is unnatural and unrelated to the true nature of man and that it is necessary to consider human nature and to chart how that nature has evolved over the centuries to produce modern man and modern society. Like Hobbes, he describes man as just another animal, and this proves to be very important. The distinction between human and animal was used both to justify mans possession and use of the Earths resources, and to explain why humans apparently have certain unique capabilities, such as reason and language. He further expounds that man is like yet unlike other animals, due to the unique way he develops. And as time goes by, human faculties were being fully developed. To be and to appear became two different things. Man became subjugated by a multitude of new needs, especially by his need for other men. Man became a slave to men as one takes pleasure in domination and tries to be their master. However, this is only true for the rich. When the powerful claims a right to another persons goods, such as the right of property, the inequality can lead to a state of war. Therefore, the rich tried to persuade the weak, who were indeed easily convinced, to unite with them into a supreme power to institute rules of justice and peace. Men ran towards their chains in the belief that they were securing their freedom, while those who did know about the deceit thought that they could trade part of their freedom for security. Although his idea sounds wrong, it essentially represents a point at which the self-preservation and pity of savage man are perfectly balanced with the acute regard for oneself in relation to others of modern man. Some aspects of reason and communal life are good, but they are still potentially destructive. In criticizing civility and concern for others as negative features of society, Rousseau goes against the good manners and civility that are generally seen as restraining the savage features of man, as he feels that there is nothing to restrain in natural man, and civility only makes men compare themselves to one another. As for Thomas Paine’s The Rights of Man, he justifies the principles of modern republican governments. He attacks the notion of monarchy and privilege and argues that each generation has the right to establish its own system of government. No nation can legally be ruled by a hereditary monarchy because government is for the living and not the dead. No generation has the right to establish a government binding on future generations. He argues that humankind can reach its full potential under republican governments which would allow individuals to live free of privilege and caste. To sum it all up, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Paine put forward an idea of how the government sprung from inequality and lack of a central world authority. For Hobbes, an absolute monarchial government ruled by one person only, is necessary to fulfill the society’s need for order and the regulation of its people so that society can avoid from spiraling into anarchy. As for Rousseau, a government having biases towards the rich while deceiving the poor was created so that the insecurities of the people would force them in order to perpetuate inequality which make them dependent on the government, giving it more power. Lastly, for Paine, a representative and democratic government is formed to protect the people’s rights to be protected and to safeguard them from the threat of chaos, allowing the people to create an environment where they can mature and achieve their potential. Despite the differences in some parts of their ideologies such as the sources of inequality and the roles of the government, a single goal is presented—that is, for the creation of a concept of government in order to prevent the society from turning back to its nature of anarchism. While Hobbes’ â€Å"one-man rule† could lead to abuse of power, his intention is for this monarchial type of government to administer order and self-preservation in the society. As for Rousseau, the maintenance of an inequality between social classes assures the stabilization of finite resources and society itself. Lastly, for Paine, his ideal world of a representative-democratic government lies on the belief that environmental influences create the individual and that a benevolent form of government can bring about human happiness. Putting them together, their main objective can be viewed as the organization and harmonization of society so as to push it towards progression. References: (n.d.). Rights of Man. Retrieved December 20, 2012, from http://www.enotes.com/rights-man salem/rights-man SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Discourse on Inequality. Retrieved December 20, 2012, from http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/inequality/

The Role of in-Film Advertising in Promoting the Sales of a Brand Essay Example for Free

The Role of in-Film Advertising in Promoting the Sales of a Brand Essay ABSTRACT Introduction: Cinema gives a powerful environment in which to advertise. The film being shown virtually identifies the target audience and makes it very easy to schedule and buy advertising spots to match brand message to potential consumers. Better still, the audience is completely captive and in a receptive frame of mind as they wait to be entertained. A well organized media plan based closely around the films being shown can be a highly effective way of communicating brand messages to a willing audience. In-film advertising is very much alive and kicking. Hence we have formulated the following hypothesis: ‘In-film advertising helps in promoting the sales of the brands.’ Methods: The first method used was a Quantitative Research Survey. The sample size was 100 people aged between 16-45 years. The locations selected for the survey were Andheri, Malad, Bandra, Dadar, Matunga The second method used was a Qualitative Research Method, wherein, we segregated the people if their responses indicated that In-film advertising didn’t affect their choices of buying brands. The questions asked were in order to determine the reason behind this attitude. Findings: Our findings clearly indicate a very high percentage of the success of In-film Advertising. But also, a number of people also responded by saying that In-film advertising was a gimmick and they weren’t affected by it. Conclusion: On the basis of these findings, we can safely conclude that our Hypothesis has been proved right, i.e. ‘In-film advertising helps in promoting the sales of the brands.’ INTRODUCTION Product placements in films help a lot, as long as they are woven into the story intricately and are not just a random appearance in a song sequence. In-film advertising is akin to gambling. If the film becomes a superhit, the brand is saved. But, if the film flops, the brand takes a heavy dent. One bad placement can do more damage than 10 good placements. Artistic integrity is crucial for successful brand placements and the utility of the product has to be woven properly into the script. The placement should be a natural fit and shouldnt be unnatural. The best way to deliver the message is to catch the customer off-guard, when their rational defenses are down. The best way to do so is to use the emotional gate rather than the rational gate. The rational gate scrutinises the advantages, benefits, features and seeks value for money; the emotional gate is all about trust, love, identification and belief and in India, the films operate at the emotional level of an individual. In-film advertising heavily depends on the popularity of particular films, the actors starring in them and their credibility. The strategy of placing some selected brands in films, gives them an additional marketing push, even though the stars featuring them may not be directly endorsing these brands. The respondents of the survey that we conducted, mentioned that the brand has to have a certain character in the film, combined with certain attributes and should not just be a stagnant prop. In the movie Corporate, by Madhur Bhandarkar, the costumes were visibly sponsored by Allen Solly, thus giving the brand certain leverage and creates positive brand awareness among the audience. In-film branding may be one more paying alternative of marketing.  Once the brand gets noticed through the films it gets a status quo by itself. In-film advertising is a rather economical medium of advertising, compared to other costlier mediums. Brands have realised that movies are a great way to reach out to an audience which is captive for a few hours. Brand managers today realise that a movie finds traction across different platforms apart from cinema theatres, such as DTH, entertainment channels on TV and home video. So the brand continues to gain exposure even after a movie is released in the thea tres. Thus, the high cost of conventional media, accompanied by the growing clutter, has made advertising an exciting and viable opportunity for advertiser. LITERATURE RESEARCH DESIGN The research design technique used is the hyposthesis-testing research studies.As we wanted to study the relationship between the two variables used in the hypothesis, one being (influence) of in-film advertising and second (its effect) on promotion of sales of the brand. TITLE Role of In-film advertising in promoting the sales of the brands. RESEARCH QUESTIONS RESEARCH PROBLEM The past four to five years has seen an tremendous increase, in the use of in-film advertising. Movies such as delhi 6, dhoom 1, Don, Aisha , Tees Maar khan etc have visibly made the use of in-film advertising. No matter if the movie belongs to a big banner or a small banner, whether it is a thumbs up or a super flop, companies have vigorously used this technique, to advertise  their brands and thus increase their visibility. The question arises as to what makes them invest crores of their funds into this field, is it actually helping them to promote sales? Has it in fact helping to build up a brand image? And also, if ever it is not converting the prospective customers into customers, what is the reason behind it’s failure? RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of conducting the research are as follows 1. To find out whether people known what in film advertising is? 2. To find out whether the viewers are able to recall the brands being showcased in the movie? 3. To find out whether it is increasing the visibility of the brand? 4. To find out whether it is creating brand awareness? 5. To find out whether it is influencing their buying pattern? 6. To find out whether it is actually helping in promoting the sales of the brand? SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH In – film advertising is not much talked about as when compared to other genres of advertising. This itself gives worth to research to be conducted in this area. Indian companies and marketers are now recognizing the importance, power and relevance of new media like internet and movies. Bollywood has been a part of popular culture and therefore, Hindi film trends, popular dialogues, characters, celebrities have always found place in advertisements. With increase in competition and media clutter, now brands are thinking of in-film placements and marketers are trying to place their brands in films In film advertising is not a very old phenomenon, it started with the movie TAAL, wherein coca cola was sublimely advertised. It is from then that the trend of showcasing brands in films was born. Research in this sector will help us to have a better understanding ,of , as to how, this technique works well for the brand, why it encourages the companies to advertise their brands with big banners, whether it gives the brands, much needed visibility and lastly if its helping in promoting sales of the brands. Research conducted on this particular notion, will help in forming a concrete belief and also will be an answer to all our research objectives. METHODOLOGY We have made use of both qualitative as well as quantitative method to conduct the survey. QUALITATIVE METHOD In this method, after conducting the survey we segregated the people wherein in-film advertising didn’t affect their buying pattern. We verbally asked them few questions to find out the reason behind them not getting influenced. Following are the questions asked to them- Q1. What according to you is the reason behind in-film advertising not being effective? Q2. Why do you personally don’t believe in it? Q3. What stops you from buying the products showcased in the movies? QUANTITATIVE METHOD Quantitative Research quantifies the data and generalizes the results from the sample to the population. Since, we wanted to know to what extent  in-film advertising helps in promoting the sales of the brand, to what extent it influences the customers to buy the featured products in the movie. We conducted a face-to-face interview. Sample Size- We interviewed 100 people. Demographic Profile: Age between 16 to 45 Both the sexes SEC A, SEC B,SEC C Educated residents of Metropolitan Cities Residential urban areas Location –Andheri, Malad, Bandra, Dadar, Matunga Psychographic Profile: Open minded and receptive to new ideas Attentive and observant Mainly movie-buffs Fashionable and trendy, out-going and social in nature. METHOD (TYPES) Primarily, we have made use of questionnaire method wherein other methods used are as follows 1. Structured data collection- We have made use of structured data collection, wherein we have made use of structured disguised. The reason behind making use of this method is that we did not want to disclose the objective of the survey been conducted because then there was a risk of getting biased opinions. 2. Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. We have made use of this rating method in our questionnaire where- in, we placed a statement, i.e. ‘In-film advertising influences you to buy the brand promoted in the movie.’ Response alternatives were: â€Å"strongly agree†, â€Å"agree†, â€Å"uncertain†, â€Å"disagree†, and â€Å"strongly disagree†. To analyze this scale, each response category was assigned a numerical value. The values that we assigned were, Strongly Agree=1, through Strongly Disagree=5 SAMPLING DESIGN Non-probability techniques: A non-probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer. Under this, we have made use of convenience sampling. Convenience Sampling: Under this, we have targeted- Students, mall and movie goers, people on the street, Fashionable and trendy, out-going and social in nature. The reason behind using this method is that it is least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling techniques. †¢ The sampling units are accessible, easy to measure and co-operative. HYPOTHESIS- ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT- In-film advertising helps in promoting the sales of the brands. NULL STATEMENT- In-film advertising does not help in promoting the sales of the brands. FINDINGS GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS FINDINGS OBSERVATION (ANALYSIS) The questionnaires that we gave to the sample audience included the above-mentioned questions. After analyzing their responses to all these questions, we have been able to get a gist of their attitudes toward In-film advertising. Firstly, it was very important for us, as researchers, to gauge only those people who watch movies regularly in order to conduct our research further. According to our findings, 87% of the respondents watch movies regularly and are movie-buffs and only 13% of the respondents watch movies occasionally. Secondly, since our hypothesis is based on In-film advertising, it was important for us to know whether the respondents were aware of this phenomenon. Therefore, 66% of the respondents were aware of what In-film advertising is and 34% of the respondents were unaware of this ‘term’. Further, it was noticed that even though, they were unaware of this term they knew the meaning of it, but were not familiar with the ‘term’ which can be analyzed further in the survey. In order to know whether the respondents were able to recall any movies using this phenomenon, we asked the following question: Q. Out of the following movies, which of them do you remember using In-film advertising? ↠ Koi Mil Gaya ↠ Fashion ↠ Don ↠ Dhoom 1 ↠ Aisha ↠ Golmaal 3 ↠ Wake Up Sid ↠ Delhi 6 ↠ Chak De ↠ Baghban In this question, we used aided-recall method. We gave the respondents a list of movies where in, In-film advertising is been used. Dhoom 1 was the highest recalled movie with 90%, followed by Koi Mil Gaya with 82% of the respondents recalling the movie. 74% of the respondents could recall In-film advertising being used in Chak De followed by 56% of the respondents for Baghban, 46% of the respondents for Delhi 6, 45 % respondents for Wake Up Sid, 40% respondents for Fashion, 23% of the respondents for Don and 15% of the respondents for Golmaal 3. Further, we wanted to know, whether the respondents could recollect the brand being promoted in the movie. Hence, with the help of aided recall method we asked the following question. Wherein, they had to match the brand that was being promoted in the movie. Q4. Do you remember the brand promoted in the following movies?( Match them accordingly) ↠ Koi Mil Gaya Reebok ↠ Fashion Motorola Phone ↠ Don Facebook ↠ Dhoom Lo’real ↠ Aisha Sunsilk ↠ Golmaal 3 Bournvita ↠ Wake Up Sid TATA Tea ↠ Delhi 6 Suzuki Hayabuza ↠ Chak De Nikon ↠ Baghban TAG Heur It was observed that, even the people who couldn’t recollect a particular brand being placed and promoted in a movie, could recollect it with the aided recall method. Therefore, 97% of the respondents could successfully recollect Suzuki Hayabuza being promoted in the movie. 88% of the respondents could recollect bournvita being promoted in Koi Mil gaya. Similarly, 79% of the respondents could recollect the same for Baghban followed by 78% of the respondents for the movie Aisha. 75% of the respondents for Fashion, 72% of the respondents for Chak De,69% of the respondents for Delhi 6, 60% of the respondents for Wake Up Sid, 40% of the respondents for Golmaal 3, and lastly 28% of the respondents for Don. Further, we discovered that 34% of the respondents agree that in-film advertising influences them to buy the brand promoted in the movie. On the other hand, 30% of the respondents have a neutral response on the same. 16% of the respondents agree that the brand promoted in the movies influences them to buy it. 12 % of the respondents strongly disagree with it and 8% of the respondents plainly disagree with it. Even though, respondents were able to recall the brands being promoted in the movie, did they actually buy the product? Has the brand recall helped in converting it to action i.e. buying? Our next objective was to find this. To this we found out, 64% of the respondents have actually bought a particular brand after it being promoted in a movie. On the other hand, 36% of the respondents haven’t bought it. Our next objective was to gauge the perception about the respondents on in-film advertising. To this, 27% of the respondents felt that promotion of the brand is the sole reason behind it being showcased in the movie. 13% of the respondents said, visibility is the criteria behind it and 60% of the respondents felt both promotion and visibility go hand-in-hand and that is the joint reason behind the brands being showcased in the movies. 76% of the respondents agreed that their perception has changed about a brand after it being placed in a particular movie. But, 24% of the respondents said it didn’t affect them. If an actor uses a particular brand in a movie; it definitely makes an impact on 63% of the respondents and to an extent influences them to buy that brand. But, it definitely doesn’t affect the rest 37% of the respondents. Q.10 According to you, since when has in-film advertising come into vogue? We asked few questions to 36% of the respondents who didn’t get influenced to buy the product placed in the movie in order to find out the reason behind it. The response and the analysis for the same is as follows:- Q1. What according to you is the reason behind In-film advertising not being effective? Products already have an identity created and communicated to the masses. Endorsing might ensure a few more sachets/packets/bottles moving out of the stacked racks but it isn’t like a beeline or an exodus for the product in question. Inculcating a brand in the backdrop and using it in the script  does not necessarily ensure cash registers ringing, it only makes a presence felt and then a surrogate mental association of the brand with the film/scene is involved. It might help, but it is very marginal, and in movies it particularly looks odd. If it is a cell phone or some a similar product then it is still alright. The movies showing products such as washing powder, bikes which doesnt make sense. By highlighting such brands or promoting the brands for the audience, surely confuses them as to what it is really meant for? It is done very well in Hollywood movies, where people will not be able to find out that they have deliberately put up a particular product. But in Indian movies, it deliberately promotes it and it does not augment well, and it is bad for movies also. A product placement in the movie should be in such a way that it has its own value or importance. Most of the times, the brand does not gain much from it’s promotion or any hike in its revenue generation. And what finally matters to the company is its revenue. So, in-film advertising in this way for few respondents has been ineffective. Q2. Why do you personally don’t believe in it? Q3. What stops you from buying the products showcased in the movies? Most of the respondents personally don’t believe in it mainly because they are brand-loyalists. It does not matter to them who is endorsing which brand or which brand is being showcased in the movies. Some of them are not satisfied the way the product is been placed in the movie. Also they feel, 30-60 seconds of brand placement in the movie is not sufficient for them to decide whether they want to buy it or not. Apart from that, this section of the respondents, do not watch movies that  often so it automatically fails in influencing them which in return, doesn’t compel them to believe in it. Thus, we had a mixed finding. Even though majority of the respondents agree with our hypothesis, they are few section of the respondents who have a different opinion and thus, they don’t agree with our hypothesis. CONCLUSION After a detailed study of the responses received from the research survey, our hypothesis proved to be true. A thumping majority of the respondents supported our hypothesis. Hence, In-film advertising does play a major role in promoting the sales of the brand. With this we can also conclude that in-film advertising is an effective tool to promote brands because it converts into sales and increases the visibility of the brand. In-film advertising is also a major advertising tool because it helps to endorse the brand with a celebrity, which otherwise is a very expensive option to consider. There are other advantages of in-film advertising. One gets stars to represent their brands, at a fraction of the costs. Moreover, films transcend geography, class and culture barriers, giving an opportunity for national and even international level branding. It also facilitates a clutter-free environment. Most importantly, films cannot be surfed, zipped or muted, unlike TV and internet. The advertisement catches people in a receptive mood and can be target specific. In-film advertising also helps in creating a favorable image about the brand from the consumer’s point of view, as the brand is being showcased in a healthy and entertaining environment. After carefully analyzing the responses received from the respondents, we also conclude that In-film advertising results in greater recall value as well as higher visibility, which helps the consumer to connect with the brand even more. The future of film branding is clearly on innovation. In this research we also analyzed that advertisements placed in films work well as the ads are placed according to the nature and background of the scene in the film which generate a very healthy background for the advertisement which in turn results into higher acceptability of that brand. while brand communication can be brought in to a film, it should be used in a selective and judicious manner and there should not be an overdose of the brand and its communication; otherwise, it would become boring, moving to a point of ridicule and seem forced. It should be used like a pinch of salt. For example, the bike- Suzuki Hayabusa used in Dhoom has given the highest visibility for the brand as the brand was actually being used in the film by a well known celebrity like John Abraham thus in a way, promoted. Such advertisements help the audience to connect with the brand along with reality. Brands get colored by the character using them and the context in which they are shown in a movie. For example, if a villain were shown wearing a Swatch watch, the brand would get visibility but perhaps not a positive mindshare. We also learnt that advertising in films helps the marketers to target their audiences, demographically as well as psychographically. Visibility of the brand in the films becomes like a long TV commercial for the audiences. Depending on the content of the film and its story line, a sketch of the profile of expected viewers of the film can be prepared and then those brands could be approached that could appeal to the targeted viewers. Most advertising professionals vouch for the fact that films, by virtue of being quite engaging, are one of the cost effective and effective mediums for advertising. Apart from monetary benefit to the production of the film from the brand owners, the commercial ads of these products promote the film throughout. One of the best examples is that of the recent film â€Å"Fashion† which had six prestigious brand placements clothing brands Kimaya and Reebok, Lenovo laptop, Sunsilk shampoo, Cellucom and LG Electronics. The production team earned Rs 8.5 crores from in-film advertisement alone, out of its total investment of 22 crores. Another example is the way Van Huesen advertisements promoted Ghajini, not only benefited the brand but, the personal image of Aamir Khan enhanced the trust for the brand. In the film,  Aamirs character was of a business tycoon, which added to the value of the brand Van Huesen, depicting success. The strategy of placing some selected brands in films, gives them an additional marketing push, even though the stars featuring them may not be directly endorsing these brands. Movies can enable brands to engage with different audiences and let consumers shake hands with the product. Given that cinema holds its audience captive, it is possible to make a product’s relatability quotient even more relevant and meaningful to the audience. Such a proposition when embedded in a storyline delivers unrivalled relatability. Further, an audience can be almost forced to sit up and take notice of a particular product attribute and see it in a new light. The recently-released, Aisha had a tie-up with Dior — the need being the lead heroine was portrayed as an elite damsel. It was a clever and convincing depiction to etch out the heroine’s character. In-film branding in fact helps to reduce publicity budgets of films by a minimum of 15 per cent. The low shelf life of movies has cut down theatrical collections; it has opened another window of revenue in the form of brand associations or in-film placements. Brands expect high visibility not only from theatres, but also when the film is shown on TV. A large majority of the respondents managed to have a high sense of recall to brands being advertised in particular films. In fact, many of the respondents enlightened us about many more examples of In-film Advertising. This shows the high success rate of In-film Advertising. All the objectives of our research, mentioned in the earlier section, have been achieved and thus, it can be called a successful research. All the findings just indicate that our Hypothesis has been proved right and hence, is valid. Therefore, ‘In-film advertising helps in promoting the sales of the brands.’

La Crisis Petrolera

La Crisis Petrolera OBJETIVOS 1. Analizar el impacto mundial que genera a nivel econà ³mico y en los mercados de capital la crisis petrolera. 2. Identificar los factores determinantes de la crisis polà ­ticos, econà ³micos. 3. Presentar informacià ³n cronolà ³gica del desarrollo de la crisis. 4. Analizar los diferentes fenà ³menos econà ³micos presentados en esta crisis haciendo à ©nfasis en la estanflacià ³n presentada en este periodo. INTRODUCCIÓN En la dà ©cada de los 70 se dio lugar a dos crisis petroleras, la primera de ellas en el aà ±o de 1973 y la segunda en el aà ±o de 1979, dichas crisis fueron generadas por los diversos intereses y objetivos que se manejaban entre los paà ­ses miembros de la OPEP (Organizacià ³n de paà ­ses Exportadores de Petrà ³leo), las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras mà ¡s importantes del mundo y los principales paà ­ses compradores como los Estados Unidos, durante los periodos de crisis la fluctuacià ³n fue incontrolable, caracterizada por el incremento constante de los precios del barril y alimentada por los intereses econà ³micos de los reinos à ¡rabes y la acumulacià ³n de excedentes por parte de las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras, hechos que impactaron fuertemente a la economà ­a, afectando a los paà ­ses importadores del crudo y a los consumidores de los bienes finales en los cuales es necesaria la implementacià ³n del mismo. Dentro del marco de la crisis tambià ©n juega un papel muy importante el aspecto polà ­tico principalmente el entre Estados Unidos y los paà ­ses del golfo Pà ©rsico con la mayor intervencià ³n de Arabia Saudà ­, por ser el principal productor de petrà ³leo del mundo, dicho papel fue determinante en el periodo de crisis debido a que fue el actor que guià ³ las decisiones de la OPEP, como en el caso de la guerra à ¡rabe-israelà ­ , cuando El gobierno saudà ­ toma la decisià ³n de iniciar un embargo en la produccià ³n, reduciendo un porcentaje importante de la produccià ³n y afectando las economà ­as por los conflictos polà ­ticos. Las consecuencias de las crisis solamente fueron negativas para los consumidores por el alza en los precios, pero fueron benà ©ficas para los productores y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras debido a la acumulacià ³n de excedentes lograda durante el periodo la cual se puede ver reflejada en la balanza de pagos de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes. Dichos acontecimientos mostraron que la elasticidad de l a demanda en aquel periodo fue alta, los productores à ¡rabes le mostraron al mundo el poder sobre este mercado y los consumidores entendieron la importancia de la energà ­a. 1. ANTECEDENTES * En 1956 el geà ³logo y director de investigaciones de Shell, inicià ³ un detallado estudio sobre los ritmos del descubrimiento de yacimientos petrolà ­feros en Amà ©rica del Norte, su trabajo demuestra matemà ¡ticamente que la explotacià ³n de todo yacimiento sigue una curva en forma de campana que toma su tiempo para fluir, ademà ¡s concluyo que la produccià ³n americana alcanzarà ­a su punto culminante en el aà ±o de 1970 y que caerà ­a rà ¡pidamente durante los siguientes aà ±os ocasionando un aumento de la dependencia del exterior, tambià ©n afirmà ³ que era inevitable una disminucià ³n de la produccià ³n a pesar de las mejoras en los mà ©todos de perforacià ³n y las nuevas tà ©cnicas de extraccià ³n, pero sus teorà ­as no tuvieron aceptacià ³n ante el gobierno de Estados Unidos, sin embargo sus postulados se cumplieron. * En 1967 el petrà ³leo supero al carbà ³n y se impuso como primera fuente de anergia alrededor del mundo. * Antes de los aà ±os 70 no se mostraban intereses relevantes sobre los recursos petroleros de Arabia Saudà ­, pero despuà ©s de 1970 la produccià ³n Norteamericana inicià ³ su caà ­da a pique y el petrà ³leo Saudà ­ se convierte indispensable. * En 1970 la produccià ³n petrolera Saudà ­ representaba el 13 % de las explotaciones mundiales, y en 1973 pasà ³ al 21 % * El petrà ³leo representaba el 95% de los recursos del reino à ¡rabe, de los cuales el 20% revertà ­a en la familia real. * A mediados de los aà ±os 70 el petrà ³leo representaba mà ¡s de la mitad de las necesidades econà ³micas globales de la humanidad representadas en un 54%, la cantidad de consumido pasà ³ de 300 millones de toneladas en 1960 a mà ¡s de 500 millones en 1975, aumentado en un 160%. * En 1971 se formo una comisià ³n encabezada por Richard Nixon y presidida por el general G. A. Lincoln con el fin de examinar la polà ­tica energà ©tica norteamericana con el trabajo de varios consultores, las conclusiones fueron: 1. Resaltar la necesidad de Estados Unidos de provocar una subida el precio del petrà ³leo importado para lograr estabilizar el precio interno a un nivel elevado e incentivar las inversiones necesarias para el desarrollo de las fuentes nacionales de energà ­a. 2. La comisià ³n tambià ©n recomienda el saneamiento de las relaciones con los paà ­ses exportadores para evitar alteraciones en las importaciones americanas. * El 14 de Febrero de 1971 en Teherà ¡n (Irà ¡n), los representantes de la compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras firmaron un acuerdo con la OPEP, debido a que su situacià ³n solo tenà ­a dos opciones ejecutar o ser ejecutados, por lo tanto firmaron un acuerdo de Capitulacià ³n el cual marco el fin del principio del (Fifty-Fifty) â€Å"mitad- mitad†, desde ese momento los paà ­ses productores poseen el 55% y obtienen un suplemento de 0.30 dà ³lares por barril sobre el precio establecido, sin embargo alcanzo el 0.50 dà ³lares en el aà ±o 1975. * En Julio de 1972 el reino à ¡rabe alcanzà ³ a producir 5.4 millones de barriles diarios y llega a 8.4 millones en 1973 * Para 1973 la industria petrolera necesitaba grandes sumas de capital debido a que afrontaban dificultades financieras, algunas compaà ±Ãƒ ­as Exxon, Shell, BP, PHILIPPS PETROLEUM ocultaban que estaban al borde la quiebra, debido a que habà ­an invertido en proyectos cuyo presupuesto inicial sobrepasà ³ todas sus estimaciones, tales como la construccià ³n de oleoductos, explotacià ³n de zonas fuera de las costas, gigantescos campos petrolà ­feros y nuevas tecnologà ­as para perforaciones, por lo tanto la crisis desatada por los paà ­ses de la OPEP fue la salvacià ³n a su crisis econà ³mica. 2. FACTORES DETERMINANTES DE LA CRISIS En 1964 el prà ­ncipe Feisal de Arabia Saudà ­, sacà ³ del poder a su hermano Saoud. En ese entonces el presidente de Egipto Nasser, era considerado como un puente que permità ­a a Rusia y su comunismo extender su influencia en la regià ³n, por lo que el monarca Saudà ­ debà ­a de alguna forma, depender de la proteccià ³n Estadounidense, sin embargo pidià ³ que los servicios secretos de Estados Unidos no operaran mas dentro de su reino sin tener en cuenta que los americanos no necesitaban de ello, la monarquà ­a conservadora de este paà ­s, la dinastà ­a de los Seoud, se apoyaba en una Islam radical: el Wahhabismo, religià ³n donde el Corà ¡n y la tradicià ³n (Hadith) deben ser interpretados literalmente, Faysal promueve la consolidacià ³n del Wahhabismo imponiendo sus reglas totalitarias, hecho que favorecà ­a a Estados Unidos y a la CIA debido a que el Wahhabismo dirigà ­a y vigilaba a la poblacià ³n, asegurando de cierta manera la estabilidad del paà ­s y junto con ella la estable produccià ³n de petrà ³leo. Estados Unidos tratà ³ de convencer de bajar los precios a los paà ­ses de la OPEP, todo inicià ³ en 1971 con el acuerdo de Teherà ¡n, donde se dieron negociaciones un poco precipitadas entre los representantes de la OPEP y los majors cuyo resultado fue un acuerdo que incluye un alza de 35 cà ©ntimos por barril mà ¡s un aumento anual de 5 cà ©ntimos por barril y otro del 2.5% al aà ±o para compensar la inflacià ³n, dicho acuerdo inicialmente se estipulo que debà ­a estar vigente hasta el aà ±o de 1975, sin embargo 15 meses despuà ©s de su inicio, Estados Unidos empezà ³ una nueva subida de precios de 1976 a 1980, ocasionado por el nombramiento de James Akins como embajador en Arabia Saudà ­, quien fue el director de la administracià ³n de carburantes y de energà ­a en el departamento de Estado y consejero para el petrà ³leo del presidente Nixon, Akins fue el encargado de preparar el informe de la segunda comisià ³n formada para revisar la polà ­tica petrolà ­fera Estadounidense, informe en el cual recomendà ³ la subida de precios.. En Junio de 1972 se reunià ³ el Congreso Arabe del Petrà ³leo de las Naciones con motivo de la celebracià ³n de la nacionalizacià ³n de la Irak Petroleum Company, que controlaba desde hacà ­a 50 aà ±os la explotacià ³n del petrà ³leo en Irak y Siria, en dicho congreso Akins dio un discurso a los asistentes en el cual afirmà ³ que algunos paà ­ses de la OPEP estimaban aumentar el precio del barril hasta que llegara a 5 dà ³lares, cuando en realizada la OPEP ni siquiera habà ­a discutido sobre la variacià ³n de los precios del petrà ³leo y teniendo en cuenta que en el acuerdo del Terà ¡n el precià ³ del barril aumento casi en un 50% pasando de 1.80 a 2.60 dà ³lares, el cual fue el primer aumento desde la creacià ³n de la OPEP, por lo tanto este discursà ³ sorprendià ³ a los asistentes y significo una leccià ³n de radicalismo polà ­tico por parte de su adversario. Por otra parte, en 1973 Nixon pone a las fuerzas Estadounidenses en estado de alerta nuclear por primera vez despuà ©s de la segunda guerra mundial como respuesta a la aparicià ³n de la flota rusa en el mar mediterrà ¡neo la cual se consideraba como una amenaza para Arabia Saudà ­, el paà ­s que le brindaba la mayor cantidad de petrà ³leo a su primer aliado Estados Unidos, por lo tanto los paà ­ses à ¡rabes sintieron apoyo de los Norteamericanos pero a cambio de aumentar la produccià ³n para cubrir la demanda americana, punto que favorecià ³ a occidente. En 1973 en và ­speras de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saudà ­ tenà ­a mà ¡s del 25 % de las reservas mundiales de petrà ³leo, el 90% de la produccià ³n Saudà ­ provenà ­a de 6 enormes yacimientos concentrados en una pequeà ±a zona del reino à ¡rabe, destacando el mayor yacimiento de petrà ³leo del mundo descubierto en 1948 llamado Ghawar contando con aproximadamente el 17% de todas las reservas de petrà ³leo accesibles en el mundo. A principio de los aà ±os 70 las cuatro compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que formaban ARAMCO: Exxon, Texaco, Mobil y Chevron, fijaban el precio del petrà ³leo producido en Arabia Saudà ­ las cuales pagaban una tasa baja al reino por cada barril vendido, pero a principios del aà ±o 1973 se enfrentaron a mà ºltiples tensiones, temà ­an que sus empresas fueran nacionalizadas, por lo tanto decidieron aumentar el nivel de produccià ³n aprovechando el alza de precios de los barriles, con el fin de poder extraer el mà ¡ximo petrà ³leo antes de que los dirigentes Saudà ­es tomaran el control de los yacimientos, situacià ³n que finalmente se dio en 1976 cuando el consorcio se nacionalizà ³ en cerca de un 60%. 3. DESARROLLO DE LA CRISIS La primera crisis petrolera se presento en el aà ±o de 1973, el 14 de Octubre inicia con las negociones entre los paà ­ses miembros de la OPEP Organizacià ³n de paà ­ses Exportadores de Petrà ³leo y las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras. El 16 de Octubre, en la ciudad de Kuwait, seis estados del golfo: Arabia Saudà ­, Irà ¡n, Irak, Abu Dhabi, Qatar y Kuwait) deciden unilateralmente aumentar el precio del petrà ³leo pasando de 2 a 3.65 dà ³lares el barril. En aquellos dà ­as se estaba desencadenado la cuarta guerra à ¡rabe-israelà ­, mediante combates, por lo tanto los ministros del petrà ³leo de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes miembros de la OPEP establecieron un embargo y optaron por reducir la produccià ³n en un 5%, mediante la elaboracià ³n de un comunicado en el cual se precisaba que dicho porcentaje seria aplicado todos los meses a partir de las cantidades del mes anterior, hasta la evacuacià ³n total de los israelitas del territorio à rabe ocupados desde Junio de 1967 y el r econocimiento de los derechos legà ­timos del pueblo palestino. La subida del precio de forma unilateral fue el resultado de largas y complejas negociaciones entre los paà ­ses productores y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras, mientras que el embargo fue decretado segà ºn lo manifestà ³ el secretario general de la OPEP â€Å"solamente para alertar a la opinià ³n pà ºblica de las naciones occidentales sobre el problema de Israel†,[1] lo que podrà ­a mostrar que nada tenà ­a que ver un hecho con el otro aparentemente, pero era el mejor medio para llevar los precios a niveles mucho mà ¡s elevados. Esta crisis tambià ©n genero una gran solidaridad entre los paà ­ses à ¡rabes como no lo habà ­an conseguido là ­deres como Gamal Abdel Nasser, en el momento de la nacionalizacià ³n del canal del Suez. El 16 de octubre se convoca una reunià ³n urgente en Kuwait de la OPAEP (grupo de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes en el seno de la OPEP), por el rey Feisal, esto con el fin de hacer al presidente Sadat, junto con el emir de Kuwait, en esta reunià ³n todos los paà ­ses à ¡rabes exportadores se comprometieron a disminuir la produccià ³n partiendo del mes vigente en un mà ­nimo de 5% por cada mes siguiente â€Å"hasta que se complete la retirada de Israel de todo los territorios à ¡rabes ocupados en junio 1967 y hasta que los derechos legales del pueblo de palestina se hayan restablecido†.[2] Arabia Saudà ­ decide no hacer una reduccià ³n en la produccià ³n no solo en un 5 sino en un 10%. Siguiendo esta iniciativa varios paà ­ses tambià ©n inician a hacer cortes en el mismo porcentaje, y en la mayorà ­a se prohà ­be la exportacià ³n a Estados Unidos y algunos de ellos tambià ©n a Holanda. Estos cortes junto a los ocasionados por el conflicto que se venà ­a cursando en ese momento redujeron en un 15% los suministros de petrà ³leo a Occidente en un tiempo de dos semanas. A inicios de noviembre en otra reunià ³n en el mismo lugar se decidià ³ un reduccià ³n del 25 por ciento generales respecto del nivel anterior de la guerra, esto hizo que todos los paà ­ses consumidores tomaran medidas urgentes, prepararse para una escasez. Adicionalmente a esto fue la decisià ³n del incremento en el precio en una gran magnitud sin algo nunca antes visto, el 70 % o mà ¡s.[3] EL PRIMER IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA (Precios de referencia de precios por barril ) Tipo de crudo 1 de octubre 16 de octubre % incremento Arabia ligero 34  ° 3.011 5.119 70 Irà ¡n ligero 34 ° 2.995 5.091 70 Iraq, Bastah 35 ° 2.997 5.061 70 Kuwait 31 ° 2.884 4.903 70 Abu, Dhabi, Murban39 ° 3.084 6.045 96 Libia 40 ° 4.604 8.925 94 Frente a estas decisiones la reaccià ³n que se esperaba de los paà ­ses consumidores era un respuesta agresiva o de ataque, pero por el contrario fue nula, pues en este momento la economà ­a de ellos estaba en auge y particularmente desde la devaluacià ³n de facto del dà ³lar en diciembre de 1971, con crecimientos de la produccià ³n industrial del 6,3 por ciento en 1972 y hasta junio de 1973, llevando a los occidentales a el punto mà ¡ximo de su capacidad productiva, este à ©xito o prosperidad tambià ©n se veà ­a o se extendà ­a a los paà ­ses menos desarrollados, al reforzar sus mercados en exportaciones en volumen y en valor. Al no recibir respuesta los paà ­ses à ¡rabes decidieron dar un nuevo golpe, duplicando los ya elevados precios en enero de 1974, adicionalmente a esto no cumplieron lo pacto de reducir la produccià ³n de 75% a un 70% lo que hicieron fue aumentarla en un 85%. Arabia saudita un poco mas consiente del efecto devastador que ejercerà ­an sobre las economà ­as de los paà ­ses industriales, trato sin à ©xito de limitar el alza a un 50%. El aumento final de un 130 % fue una propuesta final del el Irà ¡n y Arabia Saudà ­. El SEGUNDO IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA (Precios de referencia de precios por barril ) Tipo de crudo 16 de octubre 1 de enero % incremento Arabia ligero 34  ° 5.119 11.651 128 Iran ligero 34 ° 5.091 11.875 133 Iraq, Bastah 35 ° 5.061 11.671 131 Kuwait 31 ° 4.903 11.545 135 Abu, Dhabi, Murban39 ° 6.045 12.636 109 Libia 40 ° 8.925 13.765 54 Con este nuevo incremento los precios de multiplicaron prà ¡cticamente por cuatro o por ocho si se comparan con los precios existentes en el 70, esto comparado con el resto de las materias primas y los bienes manufacturados que se multiplicaron por menos de 2% en el mismo periodo de tiempo. El sistema de fijacià ³n de precios mediante negociacià ³n quedo sustituido por la decisià ³n unilateral de los paà ­ses exportadores, a partir de 1974 se realizaron mas incrementos pero mà ¡s moderados que los de octubre y noviembre hasta la siguiente gran crisis en 1979. LA PRIMERA CRISIS DEL PETRÓLEO Fuente: Fondo Monetario Internacional 4. IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PAISES EXPORTADORES Y LAS GRANDES COMPAÑIAS. Los grandes beneficiados con la crisis petrolera fueron los paà ­ses exportadores de petrà ³leo, tanto en tà ©rminos monetarios como en tà ©rminos de participacià ³n y control de sus reservas, seguidos por las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras. Los excedentes de las balanzas posteriores a 1974 por cuenta corriente de los paà ­ses de la OPEP ascendieron a 68.000 millones de dà ³lares, y promediaron los 35.000 millones de dà ³lares anuales en el periodo de 74/78, la OPEP obtuvo un excedente conjunto de unos 10.000 millones de dà ³lares lo que equivalà ­a entonces a la mitad del total mundial de las reservas monetarias oficiales. Estos excedentes no se repartieron en forma homogà ©nea y las diferencias entre los paà ­ses fueron enormes algunos paà ­ses se volvieron inmensamente ricos de la noche a la maà ±ana mientras que otros solo obtuvieron un efecto moderadamente favorable. Por esto la renta per cà ¡pita ascendà ­a en 1978 a 15.000 dà ³lares en Kuwait por encima de cualquier paà ­s industrial, mientras que indonesia otro paà ­s de la OPEP con 300 dà ³lares de renta per cà ¡pita comparado con otro paà ­s como la India la diferencia no era mà ­nima que no era un paà ­s productor de petrà ³leo. Otros paà ­ses como el Irà ¡n estaban en camino de entrar en la era de la industrializacià ³n, pero esto traerà ­a consecuencias para el rà ©gimen del Shah y para el propio pueblo iranà ­, Nigeria seguà ­a el mismo camino que Irà ¡n, pero en forma mà ¡s gradual, estas diferencias se mantenido despuà ©s de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saudita por ejemplo, con 8n millones de habitantes , posee el 38,5 por ciento de las reservas de la OPEP, Ecuador con una poblacià ³n de 9 millones tiene solo el 0,3 por ciento, por esto las rentas y las capacidades de absorcià ³n de los mercados individuales son diferentes, la perspectivas que par la industrializacià ³n ofrecen las rentas petroleras son igualmente muy distintas. Las diferencias se hicieron patentes en los aà ±os siguientes a la crisis, como consecuencias de la reduccià ³n de ventas y el fuerte incremento en las importaciones, lo que trajo como resultado un deterioro de la posicià ³n exterior de algunos paà ­ses exportadores mientras que otros continuaban con fuertes superà ¡vits, Arabia Saudà ­ por ejemplo mantuvo durante todo el periodo un fuerte excedente por cuenta corriente, mientras la balanza por cuenta corriente de Argelia para a ser deficitaria a partir de 1975. En 1978 Nigeria y Venezuela presentaron dà ©ficits tambià ©n importantes aunque en general el superà ¡vit de la OPEP alcanzo la cifra de 177.700 millones en este periodo. Evolucià ³n de las balanzas de pagos a nivel mundial (Balanzas por cuenta corriente incluyendo incluyendo transferencias oficiales) (miles de millones de dà ³lares) 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1974 a 1978 Paà ­ses industrializados 17,7 -139 17,8 -2,2 -4,9 30,5 27,3 Siete paà ­ses mayores 12,7 -4,9 22,1 7,5 7,6 33,9 66,2 Otros paà ­ses industriales 5 -8,9 -4,3 -9,7 -12,6 -3,5 -39,0 Paà ­ses en và ­as de desarrollo Paà ­ses exportadores de petrà ³leo 6.7 68,3 35,4 40,3 30,8 2,9 177,7 Paà ­ses no exportadores de petrà ³leo -11,6 -37,0 -46,5 -32,0 -28,3 -39,2 -183,0 Por à ¡reas à frica -2,1 -3,5 -6,9 -6,1 -6,6 -9,0 -32,1 Asia -2,4 -9,6 -8,9 -2,6 -0,6 -6,8 -28,5 Europa 0,3 -4,3 -4,7 -4,1 -7,6 -5,2 -25,9 Oriente Medio -2,6 -4,5 -7,0 -5,4 -5,2 -6,5 28,6 Amà ©rica del sur -4,7 -13,5 -16,4 -11,9 -8,7 -13,2 -63,7 TOTAL 12,8 17,4 6,7 6,1 -2,4 -5,8 22,0 Fuentes: Fondo Monetario Internacional y OCDE El fuerte incremento de las reservas monetarias de la OPEP reflejarà ­a la marcada preferencia de estos paà ­ses por formas liquidas de inversià ³n de sus fondos excedentarios, por esto en 1974 los dos tercios de los fondos disponibles para inversiones fueron depositados en bancos o invertidos en bonos del tesoro, fundamentalmente en los paà ­ses industrializados, aun que en los aà ±os siguientes se redujeron los porcentajes a pesar de algunas inversiones como la del Irà ¡n en Krupp, de Kuwait en Daimlet- Benz y el de Libia en Fiat. El manejo fundamental de los dà ³lares procedentes del petrà ³leo (petrodà ³lares), correspondià ³ principalmente a la banca internacional, con bastante eficacia quien tambià ©n ayudo a financiar a veces con bastantes riesgos, pero tambià ©n con sustanciales beneficios los dà ©ficits de las balanzas por cuenta corriente de gran nà ºmero de paà ­ses. El desglose por estados productores paso de 14.400 millones de dà ³lares en 1972 a 119.200 millones en 1978 con incremento en la percepcià ³n media por barril en mà ¡s de seis veces. Las rentas de petrà ³leo de los principales paà ­ses exportadores (miles de millones de dà ³lares) 1972 1974 1976 1978 Arabia Saudita 3,1 22,6 33,5 35,8 Irà ¡n 2,4 17,5 22,0 20,5 Irak 0,6 5,7 8,5 9,8 Venezuela 1,9 8,7 8,0 5,6 Nigeria 1,2 8,9 8,5 8,2 Libia 1,6 6,0 7,5 8,6 Kuwait 1,7 7,0 8,5 9,2 Qatar 0,3 1,6 2,0 2,0 E.A.U 0,5 5,5 7,0 8,0 Argelia 0,7 3,7 4,5 5,0 Otro 0,4 3,3 6,1 6,5 Total OPEP 14,4 90,5 116,1 119,2 Ingresos medios por barril ($) 1,9 8,4 11,1 11,8 Fuente: El petrà ³leo y la crisis mundial Otra consecuencia que para los paà ­ses exportadores tuvo la crisis petrolera, fue la del cambio de propiedad del crudo extraà ­do en los mismos. Aà ±os antes de la crisis el petrà ³leo era propiedad mà ¡s o menos exclusiva de las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que lo habà ­an encontrado y principalmente de las siete grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as internacionales, la fuerza de estas se basaba en su acceso a grandes cantidades de crudo a â€Å" precio de coste† del que podà ­an disponer al coste de su produccià ³n mà ¡s las regalà ­as (mà ¡s o menos el 12,5 por ciento de los precios de referencia) y la fiscalidad( normalmente el 55 por ciento de los beneficios teà ³ricos basados en los precios de referencia) A principios de 1974 Kuwait concreto un acuerdo con las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que operaban en su territorio, Gulf y BP, por el que el 60% del crudo pasaba a ser propiedad de Kuwait, acuerdo que se hizo extensivo rà ¡pidamente a otros paà ­ses, en los siguientes cuatros aà ±os siguientes el proceso quedo completado con la nacionalizacià ³n de las concesiones por los paà ­ses productores. Para las grandes corporaciones el resultado de la cuarta guerra à rabe- Israelà ­ fue un gran beneficio econà ³mico al igual que para los Estado Unidos lo fue en lo polà ­tico( y mà ¡s tarde en lo econà ³mico consecuencias de los gigantescos beneficios acumulados por sus sociedades petroleras y por su gran banca a la que habà ­an de afluir una gran parte de los excedentes monetarios acumulados por los paà ­ses productores de petrà ³leo) , las cifras en el cuarto trimestre del 1973 comparadas con las de los à ºltimos trimestres de los dos aà ±os anteriores eran noblemente altas, estos beneficios se prologaron hasta los aà ±os 80 y aun mas doblemente con la segunda crisis petrolera de 1979, la guerra hizo surgir un nuevo y poderoso cartel de la OPEP y como mencionà ¡bamos hizo perder a las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as la propiedad directa de crudo en la mayor parte de los paà ­ses, esta estrategia fue aprovechada a fondo, proporcionando a estas grandes sociedades un incremento de su poderà ­o econà ³mico en proporciones que no hubieran podido soà ±ar. Beneficios comparados de las grandes sociedades petroleras Unidad: millones de dà ³lares 1971 1972 1973 Exxon 357,0 353,0 638,0 Royal Dutch Shell 209,3 110,5 413,7 Texaco 218,2 207,4 307,4 Mobil Oil 134,1 140,9 231,2 Standard Oil de California 135,0 150,5 276,0 Gulf Oil 141,0 110,0 210,0 British Petroleum 87,0 35,0 135,0 Evolucià ³n de los beneficios declarados por las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as 1972-1978 Unidad: millones de dà ³lares 1972 1974 1976 1978 Exxon 1.532 2.142 2.641 2.763 Mobil 574 1.047 943 1.126 Standard Oil de California 547 970 880 1.106 Royal Dutch Shell 282 1.161 1.300 1.086 Texaco 889 1.586 870 852 Gulf Oil 197 1.065 816 791 British Petroleum 71 487 180 444 Fuentes: El petrà ³leo y la crisis mundial 5. EL IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PAà SES CONSUMIDORES El tema de los paà ­ses consumidores se centro en la disminucià ³n de los suministros de petrà ³leo provenientes de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes, pero a medida que se fue restableciendo se dieron cuenta que el verdadero problema era la multiplicacià ³n por 4 del precio del petrà ³leo. Esta alza fue interpretada como una agresià ³n totalmente injustificada. Los paà ­ses productores de petrà ³leo y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras se convirtieron ante la opinià ³n pà ºblica en los responsables de todos los males: la desaceleracià ³n del crecimiento, la inflacià ³n, del incremento del paro, de las restricciones al consumo que tan duramente afectaron a la mayorà ­a de los paà ­ses consumidores en el 73/74. Entre los paà ­ses desarrollados los tres mejor que menor la superaron fueron los Estados Unidos, el Japà ³n y la Republica Federal Alemana aun que por razones diferentes. La R.F.A. debido a su poderà ­o industrial, de un plan energà ©tico de lucha contra la inflacià ³n y a la calidad de sus redes de exportacià ³n no llego a ver su equilibrio de pagos exteriores en peligro, el Japà ³n un caso similar aunque tuvo un fuerte impacto inicial pero logro recuperarse, en cuanto a los Estados Unidos, el sistema monetario internacional le permite un desequilibrio permanente de su balanza por cuenta corriente, ademà ¡s como ya se habà ­a mencionado el cambio de la situacià ³n era un punto a su favor, sino ademà ¡s porque los dà ©ficits de las paà ­ses europeos obligaban a estos a conseguir mas y mas dà ³lares, que continà ºan siendo la pieza clave del sistema monetario internacional y las alzas del petrà ³leo permitieron a muchos pequeà ±os productores a pasar a ser competitivos y obtener enormes beneficios adicionales. Por el contrario para el resto de los paà ­ses industrializados y sobre todo para los del tercer mundo no productores de petrà ³leo, la crisis fue una verdadera catà ¡strofe, pues los dà ©ficits se elevaron a 183.000 millones de dà ³lares en el periodo de 1974 -78 y a 39.000 millones para los paà ­ses de industrializacià ³n media. En lugar de lograr un acuerdo de unià ³n entre los paà ­ses consumidores fue lo contrario un insolidaridad, es decir se lanzaron a una polà ­tica de â€Å"sà ¡lvese quien pueda† intentando firmar acuerdos bilaterales con los paà ­ses productores mediante delegaciones aisladas, tratando cada una de obtener los mejores beneficios que el vecino. Aunque se hizo un intento en Washington por lo representes de los 13 paà ­ses importadores de petrà ³leo no se consiguià ³ nada practico y cada uno siguià ³ sus negociaciones independientes como por ejemplo para conseguir cantidades especificas de petrà ³leo a cambio de ciertas mercancà ­as (escasas) manufacturadas: armamento moderno y tecnologà ­a de punta, con esto consiguieron que los gobiernos exportadores de que su petrà ³leo era tan importante como el oro y asà ­ estos nacionalizaron mà ¡s rà ¡pido su producciones con las alzas en los precios y generando los asà ­ el camino para siguiente crisis cinco aà ±os despuà ƒ ©s. La primera crisis petrolera se manifestà ³ en primer lugar en una caà ­da generalizada del ritmo del crecimiento econà ³mico. Todos los paà ­ses de LA OCDE (Organizacià ³n para la Cooperacià ³n y el Desarrollo Econà ³mico), experimentaron recesiones de mayor o menor intensidad, los intercambios al interior de esta organizacià ³n se redujeron en 12% en volumen entre el primer semestre de 1974, y el primer trimestre de 1975. Las empresas temiendo nuevas restricciones en la produccià ³n o nuevos aumentos en los precios del petrà ³leo, prefirieron liquidar sus stocks de productos terminados para responder a la demanda antes que incrementar la produccià ³n, por lo que las inversiones se vinieron abajo, acentuando aun mà ¡s la recesià ³n. El efecto de la primera crisis petrolera sobre el crecimiento econà ³mico Tasas de variacià ³n anual <